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As stroke volume (SV) and the arterial-venous CO2 difference were not measured in our study, however, our data cannot differentiate between the two. This point was raised by two reviewers. Unfortunately, with the addition of the actual goose in the setup (perhaps due to movement during flight, see Discussion, third paragraph), we were unable to obtain reliable measures of VO2 during flight in hypoxia. Flapping flight in birds is the most metabolically costly form of locomotion in vertebrates (Butler and Bishop, 2000). It was challenging to obtain reliable measures of V˙O2 during flight in hypoxia, likely because of small fluctuations in gas mixing, given the dynamics of flight in the wind tunnel while wearing the mask. Values are mean ± SEM. Due to the non-independence of our repeated measurements across individual birds, we cannot calculate correlation statistics such as r2. Epub 2013 Mar 7. The Monkey Bar is a version of the Pro X Series Cage which uses our traditional cable system attached to the bow of the boat for stability. Features: Your board bag currently does not contain any items. In comparing the correlation of heart rate versus metabolic rate we generated a linear mixed model for the combined data and found heart rate was a significant predictor of metabolic rate (df = 444.7, t = 37.535, p<0.0001, ICC = 0.143). You may still download the video for offline viewing. This paper presents a novel and challenging experimental analysis of the physiology of bar-headed geese flying in anoxic conditions. Why did the authors not mix nitrogen with ambient air upstream of delivery to the mask? Product Description The Monkey Bar: documented an increase in heart rate with increasing altitude. Fly Fishing For the total experience...Book lodging with our bar fly rate at the Safety Harbor Resort & Spa, grab lunch at Bar fly Saltwater grill, enjoy your day fishing then head back to the Bar fly bar for fish stories & celebration brews! Video credit: J. Whale. The reviewing editor and the reviewers enjoyed reading this manuscript and believe that the major issues highlighted below can be. This further increase in metabolic cost is concordant with the increased biomechanical costs of flying in the thinner air at high altitude (requiring increased flight speeds to offset reductions in lift; Pennycuick, 2008) but may also arise in part from increased metabolic demands on the cardiorespiratory system associated with flight in hypoxia. We encourage anyone who is interested in waterfowl to visit the Sylvan Heights Bird Park and thank Mike and Ali Lubbock, Nick Hill and their incredible personnel for their invaluable assistance and hospitality in acquiring, imprinting and raising the geese. This permits mixing of ambient air and nitrogen in the mask… which is likely a very unstable mixing environment (and may lead to the inability to obtain 'reliable, stable' baseline O2 levels in the mask). There was a significant effect of oxygen level on flight duration (F2, 363.35=6.55, p=0.0016). As blood travels away from the lung toward the exercising tissue, it would be expected to warm, enhancing O2 unloading. 9. The geese have … The duration of experimental flights and heart rate were unaffected by moderate hypoxia; reductions in O2 availability were largely matched by reductions in metabolic rate. Flight duration of (A) 3.3 minutes, (B) 4.2 minutes, (C) 5.7 minutes, and (D) 5.5 minutes. All experiments were conducted according to UBC Animal Care Committee protocols A14-0051 and A14-0136 under the guidelines of the Canadian Council on Animal Care. With venous O2 values decreasing to only around 25–30 mmHg in the present study, even under extreme hypoxia, these high fliers may yet retain a venous O2 reserve, also suggesting that these birds were not O2 limited in hypoxic flight. As the wind tunnel is an open-loop system continuously drawing in outside air while operating, temperature in the wind tunnel was equivalent to ambient local outdoor temperature (range: 3–21°C) for each flight. Also, Supplementary files 2 and 3 include VO2 recovery data from the flights in which the birds were instrumented with PO2 electrodes. We conclude that flight in hypoxia is largely achieved via the reduction in metabolic rate compared to normoxia. Arterial Po2 was maintained throughout flights. A second important finding was that heart rate showed little change during hypoxia. Experimental flights took place primarily during times that corresponded to spring and fall migration of wild bar-headed geese (Jan. 2011-Nov. 2012). This permits mixing of ambient air and nitrogen in the mask…which is likely a very unstable mixing environment (and may lead to the inability to obtain 'reliable, stable' baseline O2 levels in the mask). The mask covered the beak and forehead of the goose but did not cover the eyes. Stable data were obtained under all conditions for V˙CO2, however it was not possible to gather reliable V˙O2 data in hypoxia (as in other studies: Hawkes et al., 2014). Because the wind tunnel was undergoing repair when the first year's (2010) birds fledged, they were initially taken on outdoor training flights alongside their foster parent on a bicycle, and later on a motor scooter, to facilitate development of flight muscle and physiological capacity (Video 1 and Figure 5—figure supplement 1). Based on the data from Meir and Milsom (2013) and assuming a body temperature of 41°C and an arterial pH of 7.4, this would lead to a fall in O2 saturation pre-flight from around 92% (0.21 FiO2) to 84% (0.105 FiO2) and 67% (0.07 FiO2), roughly equivalent to the decrease in metabolic rate. In the post-hoc comparison, severe hypoxia (0.07 FiO2, equivalent to ~ 9,000 m) was significantly shorter with an estimated marginal mean (EMM) of 79.1 ± 36.6 s compared to an EMM of 187.7 ± 20.7 s in normoxia (t = −3.245, p=0.0039). Bar-tailed godwit - 20,000 feet . The recordings show that the geese did not increase their heart rate when flying in reduced oxygen compared with normal flights, suggesting that their hearts were not working at maximum capacity despite the extreme conditions. Flyin' Miata is the world leader in Miata performance. Cultural depiction This characteristic spike is followed by a second bout of cooling, and then a slow warming to levels at rest (Figure 4). 3) There should be discussion of the issue of the minimum cost of flight and the possibility that hypoxic birds "cheated" to remain aloft, since the major finding was that metabolic rate decreased during forward flight in hypoxia. The major issues raised in the reviews that must be addressed are: 1) Clarification that there is no evidence that oxygen delivered per heart beat (oxygen pulse) increases if one compares steady-state flight during hypoxia to normoxia within bar-headed geese. It was a tremendous mix. RER in flight (EMM of 1.00 ± 0.034) was significantly higher than pre-flight (EMM of 0.87 ± 0.035; t=7.026, p<0.0001) and rest (EMM of 0.80 ± 0.035; t=10.073, p<0.0001). Despite possible instrumentation effects or the short flight durations, flights were repeatable, of similar length under all conditions, and most importantly, produced stable levels of the measured variables, allowing us to make robust comparisons between flight in normoxia vs. hypoxia, thus examining the effects of hypoxia on flight physiology under similar conditions. Cannulae were coiled and secured with a purse string suture at the insertion site, and covered with medical tape. These costs are exacerbated with increasing elevation as the air becomes less dense, reducing oxygen available to support metabolism and requiring changes to the wing kinematics of forward flying birds (Feinsinger et al., 1979; Dudley and Chai, 1996; Ellington, 1984; Pennycuick, 2008). We have reworded the Discussion in regard to oxygen pulse in normoxia vs. hypoxia in order to clarify (see Essential revisions point 1). We have added discussion of this issue to the Results, as well as to the figure legends for the figures indicated. Comparing hypoxic steady state flight to normoxic, it seems that the decrease in metabolic rate was similar to the decrease in oxygen pulse. Filmed at 125 frames per second, shown here at 7.5 frames per second playback. (2011) (running, filled triangles), Ward et al. At the end of the experiments the cannulae were removed and the animals inspected by veterinary surgeons and recovered in outdoor aviaries. The authors dismiss the potential criticism that I allude to below regarding the possibility of tapping into anaerobic metabolism to support flight under hypoxia (or of an induced metabolic acidosis) concluding that there was no apparent oxygen debt to be repaid after the flights had ended. That only one bird consistently flew in severe hypoxia likely results in a survivor bias of the severe hypoxia data, as that bird may have flown more consistently due to a greater ability to cope with the metabolic challenge. If so, I think it helps clarify your explanation in the last paragraph of the subsection “Effects of Hypoxia” – about how the birds cope with the metabolic challenge – they "become more efficient" because they are restricted to fly in only the most efficient manner; one they occasionally used in normoxic conditions during the experiment and probably the way they'd fly during an actual migration. Alternatively, they may increase efficiency by "cheating" and taking advantage of turbulence or lower-speed regions created by the operator and experimental apparatus, a possibility you should also note. As the temperature probes were inserted through the jugular vein and advanced to the level of the heart, these records should reflect true mixed venous temperature. This discussion was included in the original manuscript, but has been further edited to clarify (subsection “Effects of Hypoxia”, last paragraph). Respiratory exchange ratios (RER) were calculated by dividing V˙CO2 by V˙O2 and could therefore only be calculated for data collected in normoxia. The respiratory exchange ratio RER (V˙CO2/ V˙O2 = RER) could only be measured in normoxia due to unreliable V˙O2 values in hypoxia. Wing-beat frequencies of bar-headed geese in this study were similar in both normoxia and hypoxia. Heart rate and metabolic rate of bar-headed geese at rest in normoxia in this study were remarkably similar to those obtained by Ward et al. The comparison shows a remarkable agreement in the peaks of the heart rate measurement distribution of geese flying below 2,300 meters in the wild (Bishop et al., 2015) and in the present study (but note possible survivor bias for severe hypoxia data). The birds took their first flights either in a 30-meter wind tunnel at an engineering department in the University of British Columbia or, if the wind tunnel was unavailable, alongside a bicycle or a motor scooter. Whooper swan: Cygnus cygnus: Anatidae: 8,200 metres (27,000 feet) This height was attained by a flock of whooper swans flying over Northern Ireland, and recorded by radar. These PO2 values correspond to quite different blood oxygen saturation (SO2) values between these species, however, due to the inherent differences between the flight environment and breath-hold diving and their subsequent effects on the O2-Hb dissociation curve. The bar-headed goose is famous for reaching extreme altitudes during its twice-yearly migrations across the Himalayas. Flight Clubs, also runs AceBounce, a game venue; Puttshack, a high-tech mini golf experience; and Wonderball, a ping-pong bar. We measured blood gas variables in resting birds during periods separate from flight trials (see rest data in Supplementary files 2 and 3). Flight Club is the home of Social Darts. Meir et al. Three birds flew at 12.5 m s−1, one bird at 13.75 m s−1, and three birds at 15 m s−1. Whether or not hypoxia increases the metabolic cost of flight remains to be determined.

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